Topics to be Learn : The post-1857 transition to British Crown rule and the accompanying social and cultural revival movements. The contrasting philosophies and strategies of the Moderates, Nationalists, and Revolutionaries within the freedom movement. The impact of major political milestones, including the 1905 Partition of Bengal, the Swadeshi Movement, and the 1907 Surat Split. Gandhi’s emergence as a mass leader through Satyagraha, the Non-Cooperation Movement, and the Khilafat Movement.

CHAPTER AT A GLANCE :

This chapter tells the story of how people of many languages, faiths and customs challenged the most powerful empire of the time. It is "a story not just of battles and protests, but of ideas, dreams, and the courage to imagine a new nation." The chapter covers about 90 years (1857 to 1947) and gives only a sample of the millions who took part.

Scale of the struggle : •   The Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) published a five-volume Dictionary of Martyrs listing about 14,000 heroes and heroines. •   Freedom fighters not mentioned in the chapter are no less important than those who are. •   All shared one objective (freedom) but differed in the methods to achieve it. Historians study these different "schools of thought".

After 1857: Crown Rule, Racism and Reform :

A Royal Proclamation (1858) :

After the Great Uprising of 1857, the British Crown under Queen Victoria took direct control of India from the East India Company in 1858.

Aspect	Details
Who governed?	In the Queen's name by the Secretary of State for India (based in London) and the Viceroy (the Queen's representative in India, also called "Governor General").
Promises made	• Respect "the rights, dignity and honour of native Princes": about 560 princes continued to rule their states under British supremacy (paramountcy). • "Natives" would be treated like all other subjects. • No attempt to impose Christianity.
Aim of promises	To convey that the colonial masters would now prefer to rule in peace rather than by military force.
Reality	• Princely states were closely monitored; a Resident / Political Agent interfered in administration, reducing autonomy to a symbolic one. • Missionary activity continued with indirect state support (e.g., concessions of urban land) and open encouragement from high officials. • Economic exploitation continued: heavy land taxes → severe famines, discontent among peasants and tribals; local industries could not compete with cheap British goods.

Reform Movements :

• British rule brought sweeping changes in governance and set off intense debates within Indian society.
• Elites often looked to Europe as a model to "modernise" India.
• Reformers challenged the lack of formal education and social evils such as child marriage, the degraded status of widows and caste-based discrimination.

Social and Religious Reform Movements in India

(4) Other Social Reformers :

Important Reformers: Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Syed Ahmad Khan, Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule

Period: They worked mainly during the 19th century.

Key Ideas and Contributions:

• They promoted modern education, especially for girls and disadvantaged groups.
• They opposed caste discrimination and gender inequality.
• They opened schools and worked for the education of women and marginalised communities.
• They supported various social reforms in Indian society.

MNEMONIC  |  Order of reform movements "B-A-S" = Brahmo Samaj (1828) → Arya Samaj (1875) → Shuddhi. Remember: Roy = Calcutta, Dayananda = Bombay.

Other Influences: Two Cultural Currents :

(a) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Chatterjee) :

• In the 1860s he was a sub-magistrate in a district of Bengal; he became famous for popular Bengali novels on romance and Indian history, among the first in any Indian language.
• In 1882 he published __Anandamath__, set amid the Sannyasi Rebellion and the 1770 famine of Bengal. The sannyasis worship the motherland as the divine mother and recite the poem Bande Mataram, which became a rallying cry and mantra in the 1905 awakening.
• It invoked spiritual and cultural pride from India's past for the cause of freedom.

Know This :  About Bande Mataram The poem was composed in 1875, earlier than the novel (1882). Title = Bengali form of Sanskrit "Vande Mataram": "Praise to the Mother" / "I bow to the Motherland" (Bengali has no letter "va", only "ba"). Rabindranath Tagore set it to music and sang it at the 1896 Congress session, Calcutta. Adopted as India's National Song in 1950 by the Constituent Assembly.

 (b) Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) :

Early Life :

• Swami Vivekananda was born as Narendranath Datta in 1863.
• He studied Western literature, history, philosophy, ancient Indian texts and classical music. He also took interest in sports.
• At the age of 18, he met Sri Ramakrishna and became one of his important disciples.

Achievements :

• In 1893, Vivekananda gave a famous speech at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago.
• He spoke about India's civilisation and spiritual traditions.
• He later travelled and gave lectures in America, Europe and India on spirituality, education and the development of the nation.
• He founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which combined spiritual activities with social service.

Message :

• Vivekananda did not take part directly in political activities. He encouraged Indians to develop self-confidence, inner strength and courage. His famous message was:

“Arise, awake, and stop not till the goal is reached.”

• He supported science and modern education.
• He encouraged Jamsetji Tata to establish a research institute, which later became the Indian Institute of Science.
• He advised Indians not to blindly copy the West but to preserve India's spiritual values while moving forward.

Legacy :

• Swami Vivekananda died in 1902 at the age of 39.
• His ideas inspired many people, including several freedom fighters.
• His birthday, 12 January, is celebrated as National Youth Day in India.

The Rise of the Indian National Congress (1885) :

• Regional attempts to form citizens' associations had limited success.
• Allan Octavian Hume, a British officer, criticised colonial policies as the cause of poverty; he resigned in 1882 and worked to bring together like-minded Indians.
• 1885: the Indian National Congress launched, first session in Bombay. Leaders: Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee (elected first president).
• 72 delegates from diverse regions and religions, mostly from Anglicised upper classes.
• Early Congress expressed "full faith in the providential character of British rule" and "unswerving allegiance to the British Crown"; it held yearly sessions and passed resolutions seeking dialogue.
• Demands: greater Indian participation in governance, protection of civil rights, some social and economic reforms.
• Result: the government largely ignored resolutions, giving only minor concessions.

Growing Discontent after 1857 :

Early Movements and Leaders Against British Rule :

(1) Kuka (Namdhari) Movement – Baba Ram Singh :

• The movement began in Punjab in the 1860s and continued into the early 1870s.
• The word Namdhari means people who follow the name of God. The followers were also called Kukas because of their loud religious chants.
• Social Reforms: The movement opposed female infanticide and child marriage. It also promoted simple marriages to reduce the practice of dowry.
• Anti-British Activities: The Kukas boycotted foreign goods and wore hand-spun white clothes. They also started their own postal system and private courts. They opposed cow slaughter in government slaughterhouses.
• In 1872, Kukas attacked slaughterhouses. About 65 Kukas were executed without trial. Many were killed by being blown from cannons. Baba Ram Singh was sent to Burma, where he later died in captivity.
• Importance: The Kuka Movement became an early example of boycott and resistance against British rule.

(2) Chapekar Brothers :

• The movement took place in Poona (present-day Pune), Maharashtra, during 1896–97.
• A severe famine and bubonic plague affected Poona in 1896. People were unhappy with the harsh methods used by the British authorities to control the plague.
• In 1897, the Chapekar brothers attacked and killed the British Plague Commissioner and a military officer.
• The brothers were arrested after being betrayed and were later hanged.

(3) Bal Gangadhar Tilak :

• Tilak was a prominent leader from Maharashtra.
• Tilak was a member of the Indian National Congress but felt that its methods were too moderate.
• He used his Marathi newspaper Kesari to spread political awareness.
• He made Ganesh Chaturthi and the Shivaji Festival popular public events. These festivals helped bring people together and create political awareness.
• Tilak was charged with sedition and was sentenced to 18 months of rigorous imprisonment.
• People called him “Lokmanya”, meaning “revered by the people.” He later wrote The Gita Rahasya.

(4) Secret Societies :

• Secret revolutionary societies developed mainly in Western India and Bengal.
• Anushilan Samiti: It was formed in Bengal in 1902. It provided young men with intellectual, moral and physical training. Aurobindo Ghose worked with his brother Barindra Ghose in organising revolutionary activities.
• Abhinav Bharat:D. Savarkar founded Abhinav Bharat. It was a revolutionary organisation associated with the nationalist movement in Western India.

(5) Birsa Munda :

• Birsa Munda led a tribal movement in Chota Nagpur, present-day Jharkhand, during 1899–1900.
• Birsa Munda was a Munda tribal leader. He opposed British exploitation, oppressive landlords and the growing influence of missionaries.
• He became known as a leader of tribal revival.
• Ulgulaan: In 1899–1900, he led the Ulgulaan, meaning the “Great Tumult.” During the movement, police stations and some churches were attacked. Many Mundas were killed.
• Birsa Munda was arrested in early 1900. He died in jail four months later at the age of 24.
• Birsa Munda is still remembered and respected as an important tribal freedom fighter and leader.

The 1905 Partition of Bengal and National Awakening :

Plan :

• Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India, planned to divide the Bengal Presidency.
• Bengal was then the largest province and included parts of present-day Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam.
• The partition was announced in 1905 despite strong opposition.

Official Reason : The British government said that the partition was needed for more efficient administration of the large Bengal Presidency.

Actual Political Motive : Many Indian nationalists believed that the main purpose was the British policy of “divide and rule.” The partition divided Bengal into a mainly Muslim eastern region and a mainly Hindu western region.

Opposition :

• The partition was strongly opposed by Indian nationalists.
• Leaders such as Rabindranath Tagore, Surendranath Banerjee, Bipin Chandra Pal and Ashwini Kumar Dutt led protests.
• People from different communities took part in the movement. Hindus and Muslims had generally lived together peacefully in Bengal before the partition.

Result :

Hindu–Muslim Division

• The partition increased Hindu–Muslim differences. Many Muslim leaders supported the partition because they expected more development and administrative opportunities in East Bengal.

National Awakening (unintended) :

• The partition also created a strong national awakening.
• Public meetings, processions and rallies became common, especially in Calcutta. Many students also joined the protests.
• “Vande Mataram” was sung during the demonstrations, although the authorities later banned its public singing.
• Rakhis were tied between Hindus and Muslims as a symbol of unity. The protests gradually spread to other parts of India.

Annulment of the Partition :

• The partition was cancelled in 1911 after continued protests and political pressure.
• At the same time, the British shifted the capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi.

Importance: The Partition of Bengal became an important event in the growth of Indian nationalism and the Swadeshi movement.

Know This : Swadeshi was not entirely new •   1886: Jamsetji Tata set up the Swadeshi Mills, Bombay, a model of textile production. •   1895: Punjab National Bank, Lahore, started solely with Indian capital; Lala Lajpat Rai was a founder and early director. •   1901: Prafulla Chandra Ray founded Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. Motive: break the British monopoly in every area of the Indian economy.

The Nationalist Agenda :

(1) Bande Mataram :

• In 1906, Bipin Chandra Pal started the English daily newspaper Bande Mataram. Aurobindo Ghose later joined the paper and soon became its main leader.
• The newspaper spread the idea of freedom and national independence among Indians.

(2) Opposition to the Partition :

• The newspaper strongly opposed the Partition of Bengal. It argued that the partition was intended to create differences between Hindus and Muslims.
• It stated that the movement was not only against the partition. It demanded “absolute national autonomy” for India.

(3) National Education :

• The nationalists added National Education to the programmes of Swadeshi and Boycott.
• They promoted a system of education based on Indian ideas and values, along with modern subjects. They also supported passive resistance against British control.

(4) National Council of Education :

• In 1906, leading citizens established the National Council of Education in Bengal.
• They also established the Bengal National College, which combined Indian values with modern education. Aurobindo Ghose became its first principal.
• The institution later became associated with Jadavpur University.

(5) Calcutta Congress, 1906 :

In December 1906, the Congress held its session at Calcutta under the presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji.

The Congress adopted four important programmes:

• Swaraj – self-rule
• Swadeshi – use of Indian-made goods
• Boycott – refusal to use foreign goods and institutions
• National Education – education based on Indian needs and values

The meaning of Swaraj was not clearly defined. It could mean self-government within the British Empire or complete independence.

Know This :  India as the 'Mother' Nationalists often spoke of Mother India / Bharat Mata, partly inspired by Anandamath. 1905: Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata. Subramania Bharati (Madras Presidency) translated Bande Mataram into Tamil and wrote poems calling on Mother India to rise; his magazine Vijaya portrayed Mother India. Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab) started a publication titled Vande Mataram.

The All-India Muslim League (1906) :

• The All-India Muslim League was founded in December 1906 at Dhaka by prominent Muslim leaders.
• The main aim was to protect and promote the political interests of Muslims in British India.

Concerns About the Congress ;

• Some Muslim leaders were concerned about the growing influence of the Indian National Congress.
• They feared that Muslims might not receive enough political representation in a Congress that had a large Hindu membership.
• Syed Ahmad Khan also advised Muslims to stay away from the Congress. In 1886, he founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference, which provided another platform for Muslim education and political discussion.
• Congress Response : The Congress tried to address the concerns of Muslim leaders, but these efforts were not very successful.

Early Nature of the League :

• In its early years, the Muslim League represented mainly a limited section of Muslim society, especially the educated and political elite. It is important to note that many Muslims had opposed the Partition of Bengal.

Later Development :

• Over the following decades, political differences between the Congress and the Muslim League increased.
• These developments later contributed to the growth of the Two-Nation Idea, which became an important part of the politics leading to the Partition of India in 1947.

The 1907 Surat Split :

• After the 1906 Calcutta Congress, the idea of Swaraj became an important part of the nationalist programme. This created differences between the Moderates and the Nationalists.
• At Surat in Gujarat, December 1907, these differences became serious.

What Happened at Surat?

• The Moderates wanted to reduce the importance of the Calcutta resolutions and return to a more gradual approach.
• Tilak was prevented from speaking, and disorder broke out at the session. The Nationalists then walked out and held a separate meeting.

Result :

• The Congress split into two groups — Moderates and Nationalists. This became known as the Surat Split of 1907.
• The division weakened the unity of the nationalist movement for some time.

Know This : Labels - Moderates and the British called the independence-seekers "Extremists" or "Radicals". They called themselves simply "Nationalists" as they saw nothing extreme in wanting an independent nation.

MNEMONIC  |  Lal–Bal–Pal : Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab) – Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra) – Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal) = the "Lal-Bal-Pal" trio of early Indian Nationalism.

The Revolutionaries :

Revolutionary Press and the Alipore Bomb Case :

(i) Revolutionary Press : From the late 19th century, Indian newspapers began questioning British policies.

• Moderate newspapers: Voice of India of Dadabhai Naoroji and The Bengalee of Surendranath Banerjee.
• Nationalist newspapers: Kesari and Bande Mataram.
• Revolutionary newspaper: Yugantar, a Bengali paper run by revolutionaries led by Barindra Ghose. It supported open revolt against British rule and was linked with the Anushilan Samiti.

Attack on Kingsford :

• In April 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill Judge Douglas Kingsford. He was known for giving harsh punishments to people involved in the Swadeshi movement.
• They threw a bomb at a carriage, but two British women were killed instead.
• Prafulla Chaki died while trying to avoid arrest. Khudiram Bose, who was 18 years old, was arrested, tried and later hanged.

(ii) Alipore Bomb Case :

• The British arrested Aurobindo Ghose, Barindra Ghose and several others. They were kept in Alipore Jail.
• The trial continued for about one year. Chittaranjan Das defended Aurobindo Ghose.

Result:

• Aurobindo Ghose was acquitted.
• Barindra Ghose and another accused were sentenced to death, but their sentences were changed to life imprisonment in the Cellular Jail, Andamans.
• Several other accused received long prison sentences.

British Crackdown :

• The British government took strict action against the revolutionary and nationalist press. Bande Mataram was suppressed, and several nationalist leaders were imprisoned.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was prosecuted for sedition because of articles published in Kesari. He was sentenced to six years' imprisonment in Mandalay, Myanmar.

Importance :

• The Alipore Bomb Case and the government's crackdown showed the growing conflict between revolutionary nationalists and British authorities.
• The revolutionary press played an important role in spreading ideas of resistance and national freedom.

Know This : Aurobindo after Alipore : ·       In 1910, warned of arrest and deportation, Aurobindo went to Chandernagore (French) and then Pondicherry, where he devoted himself to his philosophy of spiritual evolution and "integral yoga", wrote many books and quit politics. He became Sri Aurobindo.

Freedom Struggle in the North-East : ·       Khasi Revolt (1829–33) led by Tirot Sing (Meghalaya); Singpho Rebellion (1830s–40s) in eastern Assam. ·       Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah publicly hanged during the 1857 rebellion in Assam. ·       Quit India 1942 martyrs: Kanak Lata Baruah and Kushal Konwar. ·        Rani Gaidinliu (Manipur) fought the British from age 13; urged people not to pay taxes or work for colonial masters.

 Attacks on British Officials (1909–1912) :

(1) 1909 – Attack on Viceroy Minto :

• A bomb was thrown at his carriage during a procession in Ahmedabad. The attack missed its target.

(2) 1909 – Nashik Shooting :

• Anant Kanhere, aged 18, along with Krishnaji Karve and Vinayak Deshpande, attacked and killed a district magistrate at a theatre in Nashik.
• They were associated with Abhinav Bharat, a revolutionary organisation founded by V.D. Savarkar.
• The three were arrested and later hanged.

(3) 1911 – Vanchinathan :

• Vanchinathan shot a district collector at a railway station near Tirunelveli.
• The collector had taken action against V.O. Chidambaram Pillai's Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company and was associated with his imprisonment.

(4) 1912 – Attack on Viceroy Hardinge :

• During Hardinge's ceremonial entry into Delhi, a bomb was thrown at him while he was riding on an elephant.
• His umbrella bearer was killed, and Hardinge was injured but survived. His wife was unharmed.

The Ghadar Movement (1914–15)

• The Ghadar Movement was an attempt to start a large-scale revolt in the British Indian Army during the First World War.
• The movement was organised by the Ghadar Party, which was founded by Indian migrants in North America.
• Important leaders included Lala Hardayal and Sohan Singh Bhakna. Many Indian migrants returned to India to take part in the planned rebellion.
• In India, leaders such as Rash Behari Bose, Sachindra Nath Sanyal and Kartar Singh Sarabha tried to organise soldiers and spread the revolutionary movement within the army.

Failure of the Revolt :

• The British intelligence agencies discovered the plan before the rebellion could begin. Many revolutionaries were arrested and imprisoned.
• Some were sent to the Cellular Jail in the Andamans, while others were executed. Kartar Singh Sarabha was only 19 years old when he was executed.
• The planned army revolt failed, but the movement influenced later revolutionary activities in India.

Know This :  The Cellular Jail ("Kala Pani") ·       A huge colonial prison in the Andaman Islands to exile and isolate revolutionaries far from the mainland; designed for solitary confinement to break their spirit. ·       Prisoners faced forced labour (e.g., extracting oil by hand) and brutal punishment; some died or lost their sanity; escapees were hanged. ·       Barindra Ghose and V.D. Savarkar left vivid accounts. ·        It became a symbol of ultimate sacrifice.

 Rash Behari Bose and the German Plot :

• Rash Behari Bose : After the failure of the Ghadar revolt, Rash Behari Bose escaped to Japan. He later became associated with the development of the Indian National Army (INA).
• Jatin Mukherjee – “Bagha Jatin” : Jatin Mukherjee, popularly known as Bagha Jatin, was a leader of the Anushilan Samiti.
• He worked with Rash Behari Bose on the German Plot during the First World War. The plan was to obtain German weapons and use them to support an armed uprising against British rule.

Battle at Balasore :

• The plan was exposed after the revolutionaries were betrayed. Jatin and his companions took shelter in the jungles of Balasore in Odisha.
• On 9 September 1915, the police surrounded them. A gun battle followed and lasted about 75 minutes.
• Jatin was seriously wounded and died the next day. Some of his companions were captured and later executed.

Importance :

• The Ghadar Movement and the German Plot showed the efforts of Indian revolutionaries to use the First World War as an opportunity to challenge British rule.
• Although these plans failed, they became part of the history of India's revolutionary movement.

REMEMBER : Such attacks "invariably met with strong popular approval", rattled the government, but also hardened its resolve to rule with an iron hand.

 Home Rule Movement and the Lucknow Pact (1916) :

Tilak’s Three Tasks : After his release in 1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak worked for three main goals:

• To reunite the two groups of the Indian National Congress.
• To promote Hindu–Muslim cooperation.
• To work towards Home Rule, or self-government.

Gandhi and the Non-Cooperation Movement :

(1) Gandhi: From South Africa to the Congress :

Early Life :

• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in 1869 at Porbandar, Gujarat.
• He studied law in London.
• He went to South Africa, where he faced racial discrimination.
• He also saw the difficulties faced by the Indian community there.

Satyagraha :

• Gandhi developed the idea of Satyagraha, meaning “insistence on truth.”
• It was based on non-violence (ahimsa), peaceful resistance and willingness to face suffering.
• Gandhi believed that people could oppose injustice without using violence.

Gandhi's Early Movements in India : Gandhi returned to India in 1915 and joined the Congress on Gopal Krishna Gokhale's advice.

In 1917–18, he used Satyagraha to support local people:

• Bihar: Supported indigo farmers.
• Ahmedabad: Supported mill workers demanding better wages.
• Kheda: Supported peasants who faced excessive land revenue demands.

(1) Bardoli Movement :

• In 1928, Vallabhbhai Patel led the Bardoli Movement.
• It became one of the successful grassroots movements.
• Gandhi gave Vallabhbhai Patel the title “Sardar.”

(2) The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) :

Why Did the Movement Begin?

• The First World War did not bring freedom to India.
• Food shortages increased because food was supplied for the war effort.
• Heavy government spending on defence caused prices to rise.
• The Rowlatt Act of 1919 allowed the government to detain people without trial.
• It also restricted important civil liberties.

THINK ABOUT IT  :  Khadi Khadi = hand-spun, hand-woven yarn/cloth. Not just clothing: a symbol of Swadeshi and self-reliance, work for millions of impoverished villagers, a direct challenge to British textile imports, and a way to unite people economically and symbolically against foreign rule.

The Khilafat Movement and its Aftermath :

Background :

• The Ottoman Empire was ruled by a Sultan who was also the Caliph, regarded as the religious and political leader of many Muslims.
• After the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was broken up, and the position of the Caliph became uncertain.

Khilafat Movement – 1919 :

• The Khilafat Movement was started by the Ali brothers — Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali — and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
• Its main aim was to protect the position and religious authority of the Caliph.

Gandhi’s Support :

• Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as a way to bring Hindus and Muslims together in the national movement.
• In 1920, Gandhi and the Khilafat leaders agreed to work together for Khilafat and Swaraj.
• The Khilafat Movement joined the Non-Cooperation Movement, which increased Muslim participation in the freedom struggle.

Criticism :

• Some Congress leaders felt that the position of the Caliph was not an Indian issue.
• They also feared that it could connect Indian Muslims' loyalty with a ruler outside India.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah left the Congress in 1920 because he opposed mixing religion with the national movement.

End of the Movement :

• The movement gradually ended after Mustafa Kemal abolished the Sultanate in 1922 and the Caliphate in 1924.
• The movement had temporarily brought Hindus and Muslims together, but later Hindu-Muslim tensions and riots increased.
• Historians have different views about its long-term effects.

NOTE  :  Textbook name check The textbook lists Syed Ahmad Khan among Muslim leaders sceptical of the Khilafat Movement. He died in 1898, before the movement began, so treat this as a loose reference to the "territorial loyalty" objection. In exams, reproduce the textbook line if asked for it, but do not build a date-based argument on it.

Chauri Chaura and the Swaraj Party :

• In February 1922, a protest took place at Chauri Chaura in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
• The protesters set a police station on fire, and some policemen were killed.
• Mahatma Gandhi considered this an inhuman act. Therefore, he decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Many Congress leaders did not agree with Gandhi's decision.
• Leaders such as Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das and Subhas Chandra Bose were disappointed with the withdrawal of the movement.

Formation of the Swaraj Party :

• Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das formed the Swaraj Party.
• They wanted to follow a different strategy to achieve self-government.
• The party became less active after C.R. Das died in 1925 and did not remain strong for long.

Protest, Purna Swaraj and Civil Disobedience

Simon Commission and Lala Lajpat Rai :

Simon Commission – 1927 :

• The British government often introduced reforms, but these reforms did not give India self-rule or independence.
• In 1927, the British sent the Simon Commission to study constitutional reforms.
• It had no Indian member, so Indians strongly opposed it. People protested with black flags and raised the slogan “Simon Go Back!”

Lala Lajpat Rai :

• In October 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai led a peaceful protest against the Simon Commission in Lahore.
• The police used lathis to disperse the protesters, and Rai was badly injured. He died about two weeks later.
• His death created strong anger against British rule and increased nationalist feelings.

Impact : The Simon Commission showed that the British were unwilling to properly involve Indians in deciding their own future. This strengthened the demand for complete self-rule and independence.

Purna Swaraj and the Civil Disobedience Movement :

Demand for Purna Swaraj

• In 1928, the Nehru Report, prepared under Motilal Nehru, demanded Dominion Status for India. This meant that India would have internal self-government, while Britain would still control defence and foreign affairs.
• However, younger leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose wanted Purna Swaraj, meaning complete independence from British rule. The demand for complete independence had also been raised earlier by several nationalists.
• In December 1929, the Lahore Session of the Congress officially adopted the resolution for Purna Swaraj.

Know This :  Lahore Resolution (1929): main ideas

·       Freedom and the fruits of one's toil are the inalienable right of every people.

·       A people have the right to alter or abolish a government that deprives and oppresses them.

·       British rule deprived Indians of freedom, exploited the masses and ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually.

·       Therefore India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj.

Gandhi–Irwin Pact, 1935 Act and the Poona Pact :

Gandhi–Irwin Pact – 1931 :

• The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was an agreement between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin in 1931.
• The British government agreed to release political prisoners who were not involved in violence and allowed limited private production of salt.
• In return, the Congress suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to attend the Round Table Conference in London.

Criticism and End of the Movement :

• Some younger leaders criticised the pact because it did not guarantee Purna Swaraj.
• Gandhi later resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement, but many people were arrested and public enthusiasm declined.
• Gandhi finally withdrew the movement in 1934, and the Congress began focusing more on constitutional methods.

Government of India Act – 1935

• The Government of India Act, 1935 introduced provincial autonomy.
• Indians could form elected governments in the provinces. However, the British continued to control important areas such as defence and foreign affairs.
• Provincial governors also had wide powers and could take control of provincial administration.

Gandhi and Ambedkar

• Mahatma Gandhi worked against the practice of untouchability and supported the rights of the Depressed Classes, now called Scheduled Castes.
• B.R. Ambedkar also wanted political rights for these communities, but he supported separate electorates to ensure their political representation.

Poona Pact – 1932

• Gandhi opposed separate electorates because he feared they would create a permanent division within Hindu society.
• He began a fast unto death. Gandhi and Ambedkar reached a compromise known as the Poona Pact.
• It rejected separate electorates but provided more reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in legislatures.

The Idea of Separate Nations :

Muslims and the Civil Disobedience Movement :

• Many Indian Muslims did not take an active part in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• At the same time, discussions about the political future and representation of Muslims became more important.

Muhammad Iqbal – 1930 :

• In 1930, Muhammad Iqbal, a famous Urdu poet and philosopher, spoke at the Muslim League session in Allahabad.
• He suggested a separate territory for Muslims in north-western India within a larger Indian federation.
• This was not yet the exact idea of Pakistan, but it increased the debate about separate political identities.

Two-Nation Idea :

• The Two-Nation idea stated that Hindus and Muslims were separate political communities.
• Many Congress leaders, including Muslim leaders such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Abdul Ghaffar Khan, did not support this idea.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah later supported the demand for Pakistan.

Views of Hindu Organisations :

• Some Hindu organisations also considered Hindus and Muslims as two distinct nations. For example, V.D. Savarkar and the Hindu Mahasabha expressed this view.
• However, this did not necessarily mean that they were demanding the immediate partition of India.

World War II and the Indian National Army :

India and World War II – 1939 :

• In 1939, Britain involved India in World War II without consulting Indian leaders.
• More than 2.5 million Indian soldiers served in the war, and at least 87,000 died.
• In India, people faced shortages and high taxes. The Bengal Famine of 1943 caused the deaths of millions of people.
• Many Indians felt that they were being asked to fight and sacrifice in a war while their own country was still denied freedom. This increased opposition to British rule.

Subhas Chandra Bose :

• Subhas Chandra Bose, a former Congress leader, disagreed with Gandhi's policy of non-violence.
• He believed that armed struggle was necessary to achieve independence.
• In 1941, he escaped from house arrest and travelled through Afghanistan and Russia to Germany to seek support for India's independence.
• Later, he travelled to Southeast Asia and Japan and reached Singapore in 1943.

Indian National Army (INA) :

• In Singapore, Bose took leadership of the Indian National Army (INA), which included Indian prisoners of war and volunteers.
• He formed the Azad Hind (Free India) government.
• The INA fought alongside Japan in Burma and parts of northeastern India, including Manipur and Nagaland.

Defeat of the INA :

• The INA was militarily defeated and could not establish a permanent base in India.
• Bose was admired by many Indians for his determination to fight for independence. However, others criticised his alliance with Nazi Germany and Japan.

The Quit India Movement (1942) :

Cripps Mission – 1942 :

• In 1942, the British government sent Stafford Cripps to India to seek Indian support in World War II.
• He offered Dominion Status after the war and allowed provinces to choose not to join the future Indian Union.
• Most Indian leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, rejected the proposal because it did not offer immediate independence.

Launch of the Quit India Movement

• In August 1942, Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement.
• He gave the famous slogan “Do or Die” and demanded that the British leave India immediately.
• The British arrested almost all major Congress leaders. However, the movement continued across the country.
• Workers went on strikes, students left schools and colleges, and people protested against British rule.
• In some places, protesters attacked government buildings and damaged telegraph lines.
• Leaders such as Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan continued the struggle through underground activities.

British Suppression and Impact :

• The British government used severe measures to suppress the movement.
• Viceroy Lord Linlithgow described it as the most serious rebellion since 1857.
• Although the movement was suppressed, it showed that the British could no longer rule India easily without the support and cooperation of Indians.

Women of Quit India

• Aruna Asaf Ali: hoisted the national flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay; went underground for nearly four years despite a bounty; edited underground bulletins; later supported the 1946 Royal Indian Navy mutiny.
• Kanaklata Barua ("Birangana"), aged 17, Assam: shot dead by police while leading a procession to hoist the national flag at Gohpur police station.

Know This : The numbers of sacrifice •   Non-Cooperation (1920–22): ~40,000 jailed. •   Salt Satyagraha (1930): over 60,000 jailed, many brutalised. •   Civil Disobedience (1931–34): another ~40,000 jailed. •   Quit India (1942–45): over 100,000 imprisoned; nearly 10,000 killed. The textbook says you need not remember the figures; remember their significance (huge collective sacrifice).

Partition, Turmoil and Independence :

End of World War II – 1945 :

• World War II ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis Powers.
• European countries became weaker and found it difficult to maintain their colonies.
• This began a period of decolonisation. Britain also started preparing for the transfer of power in India.

Mutinies – 1946 :

• In January 1946, a mutiny took place in the Royal Indian Air Force.
• In February 1946, sailors of the Royal Indian Navy also rebelled against poor treatment and other grievances.
• The naval revolt spread to several places. These events showed the British that they could no longer depend completely on the Indian armed forces.

Cabinet Mission – 1946 :

• The Cabinet Mission came to India in 1946 to find a peaceful way to transfer power.
• It proposed grouping the provinces into three groups, while the central government would mainly control defence, foreign affairs and communications. However, Congress and the Muslim League could not agree on the plan.

Direct Action Day – 16 August 1946 :

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah called for Direct Action Day to press the demand for Pakistan.
• Serious communal violence broke out in Calcutta, causing many deaths and displacing thousands of people.
• The violence increased fear and distrust between different communities.

Interim Government – September 1946 :

• An Interim Government was formed in September 1946 under Jawaharlal Nehru. However, political and communal tensions continued.
• The British therefore moved towards a quick transfer of power.

Why did the British leave? (Historians' debate) :

Older view: mainly thanks to Gandhi, non-violence and Congress policies.

Newer recognition of multiple factors:

• Popular uprisings and mass movements
• Numerous attempts by revolutionaries
• Mutinies in the Royal Indian Air Force and Royal Indian Navy
• Britain's diminished status after WWII
• The worldwide trend towards decolonisation: "the age of empires was over, at least in that form"

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