Notes-NCERT-Class-7-Social Science-Part : 1-Chapter-4-New Beginnings: Cities and States-CBSE

Topics To be Learned: From First to Second Urbanisation Janapadas and Mahājanapadas Early Democratic Traditions More Innovations of the Age The Varṇa–Jāti System Developments Elsewhere in India

From First to Second Urbanisation :

First Urbanisation :

• The Indus Valley Civilization is known as India's First Urbanisation.
• It declined in the early 2nd millennium BCE (after 2000 BCE).
• Some cities were abandoned, while people in other places continued to live there but followed a village or rural lifestyle.

Features That Disappeared :

After the decline of the Harappan civilisation, many features of city life disappeared:

• Large public and private buildings
• Crowded streets and busy markets
• Skilled workers such as metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, and other craftspeople
• A writing system
• A proper sanitation system
• A well-organised administration and a larger state ruled by a governing class

A Long Gap in Urban Life :

• For about 1,000 years, there were very few cities in India.
• Some small towns and regional cultures existed, especially in northern India, but large urban centres were mostly absent.

Second Urbanisation :

• In the 1st millennium BCE, cities began to develop again.
• This new phase started in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus basin, and nearby regions.
• It gradually spread across the Indian subcontinent.
• This period is called India's Second Urbanisation.
• The process of urbanisation that began during this period has continued up to the present day.

How do we know this? From two main sources — (1) archaeological excavations confirming ancient urban centres, and (2) ancient literature (late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts) describing these new urban centres.

Janapadas and Mahājanapadas :

Janapada : Janapada is a Sanskrit word that means "the place where people (jana) have settled (pada)."

• Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, people who shared the same language and customs formed territories called janapadas.
• Each janapada was ruled by a rājā (king or ruler).

Growth of Janapadas :

• As trade increased, janapadas became larger and stronger.
• They developed connections with other janapadas through trade and communication.
• By the 8th–7th centuries BCE, some smaller janapadas joined together to form larger states.

Mahājanapada : A Mahājanapada was a large state formed by the merger of smaller janapadas.

• Ancient texts mention 16 Mahājanapadas.
• They stretched from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east, and to Aśhmaka in central India.
• Some smaller janapadas continued to exist independently.

Four Powerful Mahājanapadas :

The four strongest Mahājanapadas were:

• Magadha (part of present-day Bihar)
• Kosala (part of present-day Uttar Pradesh)
• Vatsa
• Avanti (part of present-day Madhya Pradesh)

Capitals of the Mahājanapadas :

• Most Mahājanapada capitals were large and well-fortified cities.
• They were protected by strong walls and a moat around the city.
• The gateways were kept narrow so guards could easily control the movement of people and goods.
• Many of these ancient capitals have survived and continue to exist as cities even today, with a history of about 2,500 years.

Early Democratic Traditions :

Assemblies in the Janapadas

• Every janapada had an assembly or council called the sabhā or samiti.
• These assemblies are first mentioned in the Vedas.
• They discussed important matters related to the clan and the kingdom.
• Most members of these assemblies were probably clan elders.

Role of the Rājā (King) :

• The rājā was not expected to rule alone or make unfair decisions.
• A good ruler took advice from the assembly, ministers, and administrators.
• Some ancient texts mention that an inefficient ruler could even be removed by the assembly, although this was not a fixed law.

Two Systems of Governance

(1) Monarchies :

• In a monarchy, the rājā had the highest authority.
• He was supported by ministers and an assembly of elders.
• The position of the king was usually hereditary (passed from parent to child).
• The king collected taxes, maintained law and order, built forts, and kept an army.
• Examples: Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti.

(2) Gaṇas or Sanghas (Early Republics) :

• In Gaṇas or Sanghas, the sabhā or samiti had greater power than the king.
• Important decisions were taken through discussion and, when needed, voting.
• The assembly also selected the rājā.
• Examples: Vajji and Malla. Historians consider these to be among the earliest republican and democratic systems in the world.

• Scholars refer to these as "early republics" because power was held by assembly members rather than a single hereditary monarch.

Checks on Power:  Even in monarchies, a "good ruler" was expected to consult assemblies and ministers. Incompetent rulers could potentially be removed by these assemblies.

More Innovations of the Age :

(a) Intellectual and Artistic Growth :

• During this period, many new schools of thought developed.
• These included the Late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions.
• Their ideas spread through scholars, monks, nuns, and pilgrims who travelled across India.
• Indian art also developed and later flourished during the age of great empires.

(b) Iron Metallurgy :

• The Indus Valley Civilization was skilled in using copper and bronze.
• During the Second Urbanisation, iron became widely used.
• Iron-working techniques were developed from the early 2nd millennium BCE, but became common only after many centuries.
• By the late 2nd millennium BCE, iron tools were widely used for farming, helping increase agricultural production.
• Iron was also used to make stronger, lighter, and sharper weapons, such as swords, spears, arrows, and shields.
• There were wars as well as alliances between neighbouring Mahājanapadas, leading to the rise of new kingdoms and empires.

(c) First Coins :

• As trade increased, the first coins were introduced in India.
• The earliest coins were silver punch-marked coins, with symbols stamped onto the metal.
• Later, coins made of copper, gold, and other metals were also used.
• Most Mahājanapadas issued their own coins.
• Coins from neighbouring regions were also accepted and used in trade.

The Varṇa–Jāti System :

Organisation of Society

• As societies grow, people are organised into different groups based on their work and responsibilities.
• These groups may include people involved in governance, religion, trade, farming, and crafts.
• Although these groups are meant to support one another, they can sometimes lead to inequality in wealth, power, and social status.
• In ancient India, society was organised through the Varṇa–Jāti system.

Jāti :

• Jāti was a community of people who usually followed the same occupation.
• Occupations included farming, trade, metalwork, and different crafts.
• Skills and occupations were generally passed down from one generation to the next.
• A jāti could be divided into sub-jātis, each with its own customs, marriage rules, rituals, and food habits.

Varṇa : Varṇa is a concept mentioned in the Vedic texts.

It divided society into four broad groups based on duties and occupations.

Varṇa	Main Role
Brahmins	Preserved and spread knowledge and performed religious rituals.
Kshatriyas	Protected society and the kingdom and fought in wars.
Vaishyas	Increased wealth through trade, business, and agriculture.
Shudras	Worked as artisans, craftspeople, workers, and servants.

Meaning of "Caste"

• The English word "caste" comes from the Portuguese word casta.
• It was used by Portuguese travellers in the 16th century CE to describe Indian society.
• Historians differ on whether the word "caste" refers to Varṇa, Jāti, or the entire Varṇa–Jāti system.

Changes Over Time :

• In the early period, people could change their occupations when needed.
• For example, a farmer affected by drought might become a trader or craftsperson.
• Some Brahmins also took up trade or military service.
• The Varṇa–Jāti system helped organise society and provided stability.
• Over time, however, it became more rigid, leading to inequality and discrimination, especially against lower jātis and excluded communities.
• These inequalities became even more severe during British rule.

Developments Elsewhere in India :

Important Trade Routes :

• Two major trade routes connected different parts of ancient India:
• Uttarapatha connected the northwestern regions with the Ganga plains and extended to eastern India.
• Dakṣhiṇapatha started from Kauśhāmbī, crossed the Vindhya Range, and continued towards southern India.
• Many smaller roads connected these routes to ports on the eastern and western coasts, which were busy centres of trade.

Eastern India :

• A major city called Śhiśhupalgarh developed in eastern India.
• It was the capital of the Kalinga region.
• The city had a square layout, strong fortifications, and wide streets.

Southern India

• Cities started developing in southern India from around 400 BCE.
• Three important kingdoms emerged:

             Chola Kingdom

            Chera Kingdom

            Pandya Kingdom

• Information about these kingdoms comes from archaeological discoveries and ancient Tamil literature.
• Southern India was rich in gold, precious and semi-precious stones, and spices.
• These resources helped the southern kingdoms trade with other parts of India and with overseas kingdoms and empires.

A Connected Subcontinent :

• By around 300–200 BCE, almost the entire Indian subcontinent, including the Northeast, was well connected.
• Goods, people, and ideas travelled freely across different regions.
• Indian trade and culture also spread to Central Asia and Southeast Asia.
• Around this time, the Mahājanapadas disappeared and were replaced by new empires.

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