Solutions-NCERT-Class-7-Social Science-Part : 1-Chapter-4-New Beginnings: Cities and States-CBSE

• The Second Urbanisation was a new phase of city development in India that began during the 1st millennium BCE.
• After the decline of the Indus (Harappan) Civilisation, cities almost disappeared for about 1,000 years. This earlier urban phase is called the First Urbanisation.

Beginning of the Second Urbanisation

• The Second Urbanisation started mainly in the Ganga plains, the Indus basin, and nearby regions.
• Later, it spread to many other parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Main Features

• Large and well-fortified cities were established.
• Trade and commerce expanded through better trade networks.
• Punch-marked coins were introduced, making trade easier.
• The use of iron increased greatly.
• Iron tools helped farmers grow more crops and made stronger tools and weapons.
• Better agriculture and trade led to the growth of towns and cities.

The Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were the first organised states of India during the 1st millennium BCE. They played an important role in India's political, economic, and cultural development.

Territorial Settlement

• Clans gradually settled in fixed areas instead of moving from place to place.
• Each Janapada was linked to a particular territory.

Economic Growth

• Trade and commerce increased through better trade routes.
• Punch-marked coins were used for easier trade.
• Iron ore and the fertile Gangetic Plains helped increase agriculture and production.

Development of Infrastructure

• Large fortified capitals were built for protection and administration.
• Some of these ancient capitals have grown into important cities even today.
• Major trade routes like the Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha connected different parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Cultural and Social Development

• New religious and philosophical ideas developed during this period.
• Major traditions such as Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain thought became influential.
• Society became more organised through the Varna–Jati system.

The early states followed two main systems of governance: Monarchies and Early Republics (Ganas or Sanghas).

(1) Monarchies

• Most Mahajanapadas, such as Magadha and Kosala, were ruled by a Raja (King).
• The king was the highest authority in the state.
• The position of the king was usually hereditary (passed from father to son).
• The king maintained law and order, collected taxes, and led the army.
• The king was expected to take advice from ministers and the Sabha or Samiti (assembly of elders) before making important decisions.

(2) Early Republics (Ganas or Sanghas)

• Some states, such as Vajji and Malla, followed a republican system.
• In these states, the assembly had greater power than the king.
• Important decisions were made through discussion and voting.
• The assembly could choose or remove the Raja.
• Because of these features, these states are considered among the world's earliest republics.

Capitals of the Powerful Mahājanapadas :

• Magadha: Its capital was Rājagṛiha.
• Kosala: Its capital was Śhrāvastī.
• Vatsa: Its capital was Kauśhāmbī.
• Avanti: Its capital was Ujjayinī.

Matching with Modern Indian Cities :

The most of these ancient capitals continue to be living cities today, meaning they are "modern" cities that are often 2,500 years old. Specifically:

• Rājagṛiha is matched with modern-day Rajgir in Bihar.
• Kauśhāmbī is located near the modern city of Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh.
• Ujjayinī is located in today’s Madhya Pradesh (known today as the city of Ujjain).
• Śhrāvastī is located in part of today’s Uttar Pradesh.

As civilizations became more advanced, society became more organised. People were divided into different groups based on their occupation, duties, and social roles.

Organised Society :

• A well-organised social system helped maintain order and stability.
• It also supported economic activities such as farming, trade, and crafts.

Harmony and Cooperation

• Different groups performed different duties.
• They worked together to meet the needs of society and support one another.

Transfer of Skills

• The Jati system linked communities with particular occupations.
• Skills such as farming, metalworking, pottery, and trade were passed from one generation to the next.

Governance and Religion

• The Varna system assigned different responsibilities to different groups.
• Brahmins preserved knowledge and performed religious rituals.
• Kshatriyas protected the kingdom and defended the people.
• Vaishyas engaged in farming, trade, and business to create wealth.

Beyond the four varṇas, the numerous specialized professions and roles that existed or would be expected during this era:

• Crafts and Arts: Metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, and general artisans or craftspeople.
• Resource Management: Miners, timber forest workers, elephant trainers, and cattle herders.
• Production and Labor: Blacksmiths (including specific roles like fire-stokers and iron-beaters), firewood and water carriers, and general servants or workers.
• Trade and Administration: Merchants, business owners, town-planners, administrators, and ministers.
• Financial Services: People involved in the minting and punching of silver and copper coins.

• Inequalities can appear in different ways-through wealth, gender, caste, race and access to opportunities. Many people have experienced moments where they were treated differently because of such factors.
• Yes, equality is highly desirable in society because it ensures fairness, respect and dignity for all individuals. When people have equal opportunities, they can contribute to society positively, reducing discrimination and social divisions. A fair society leads to peace, growth and happiness for everyone.
• Yes! Many people and groups work to reduce inequality. Schools offer education to all, governments push for fair wages and social movements fight for justice.

In the Arthaśhāstra, Kauṭilya recommends :

• The capital city and border towns should be protected with strong fortifications.
• The kingdom should be self-sufficient and able to support its people even during natural disasters or difficult times.
• It should have rich natural resources, such as mines, forests for timber, and fertile grazing lands.
• A strong economy with a variety of goods and industries was considered essential.
• Good roads and waterways were needed for trade, transport, and communication.

Comparison with Today :

• Modern countries do not depend on stone forts or elephant forests for protection.
• Today, security is maintained through national defence, border security, and cybersecurity.
• A strong economy, proper use of natural resources, and good transport and communication infrastructure are still essential for the growth and stability of a country.

• According to the text, the rājā (ruler) was not expected to rule arbitrarily and was guided by assemblies known as the sabhā or samiti.
• In early Vedic traditions, these assemblies consisted of elders who provided advice on clan matters.
• In some cases, as seen in the later gaṇas or sanghas (early republics), the power of the assembly was even greater—they were responsible for the selection and even the removal of the rājā.

Historians use two main types of sources to study the early states and the Second Urbanisation.

(1) Archaeological Sources :

• Archaeological excavations provide physical evidence of ancient cities.
• They show well-fortified cities with moats and narrow gateways, such as Rajagriha and Shishupalgarh.
• Historians have also found punch-marked silver coins, iron tools, pottery, and other objects.
• These findings help us understand the technology, trade, economy, and daily life of the people.

(2) Literary Sources :

• Ancient Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts provide valuable information about this period.
• These texts mention the 16 Mahajanapadas and their important cities.
• They describe the systems of government, including monarchies and republics.
• They also explain the Varna–Jati system and the social life of the people.

Importance of These Sources

• Together, archaeological and literary sources help historians understand the political, economic, social, and cultural life of early India.

The development of iron metallurgy was an important technological change that helped the growth of the Second Urbanisation.

Agriculture :

• Iron tools became widely used by the late 2nd millennium BCE.
• Strong iron tools made farming easier and more efficient.
• They helped increase agricultural production and food supply.

Warfare and Defence :

• Iron was used to make stronger and sharper weapons, such as swords, spears, and shields.
• These weapons were better than those made of copper or bronze.
• They helped the Mahajanapadas protect their territories and expand their kingdoms.

Infrastructure :

• Iron tools helped in building strong forts, city walls, and public structures.
• They also made construction work faster and more effective.
• Result
• The increased use of iron improved agriculture, defence, and construction, which supported the growth of towns, cities, and powerful states during the Second Urbanisation.