Notes-Part-2
Topics to be Learn : Part-2
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Applications of Biotechnology:
Biotechnology covering a broad spectrum of scientific applications used in many sectors, such as health and agriculture industry, environment and genomics.
(1) Healthcare Biotechnology :
It involves unique, targeted and personalized therapeutic and diagnostic solutions for organ transplant, stem cell technology, genetic counselling, forensic medicine, gene probes, genetic fingerprinting and karyotyping.
Human insulin production using r-DNA technology.
Vaccine : A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity against a certain disease.
Vaccine is often made from a weakened or killed form of the microorganism, its toxins or one of its surface protein antigens.
Vaccine production : Oral vaccines: Production of edible vaccine : Production of ‘melt in the mouth’ vaccines :
Proteins produced by r-DNA technology.
Disorder/ Diseases/ Health condition
Erythropoeitin
Anaemia
Interleukin-1 receptor
Asthma
Platelet derived growth factor
Atherosclerosis
Tissue plasminogen Activator (TPA) Urokinase
Blood clots
Interferons, tumour necrosis factor interleukins, macrophage activating factor
Cancer
Insulin
Diabetes
α 1- Antitrypsin
Emphysema
Factor VIII
Haemophilia A
Factor IX
Haemophilia B
Hepatitis B vaccine
Hepatitis B
Relaxin
Partiurition
Advantages of edible vaccine :
- Edible vaccine is an edible plant part engineered to produce an immunogenic protein, which when consumed gets recognized by immune system.
- Immunogenic protein of certain pathogens are active when administered orally.
- When animals or mainly humans consume these plant parts, they get vaccinated against certain pathogen.
- Oral or edible vaccines have low cost, they are easy to administer and store.
(2) Agriculture :
Application of biotechnology in agriculture :
Genetically modified organisms, Bt Cotton, pest resistant plants, improvement in the agricultural productivity.
Applications of tissue culture :
- Micropropagation i.e. large-scale propagation of plants in very short durations.
- Storage of germplasm and maintaining clone of plants which produce recalcitrant seeds or highly variable seeds. Recalcitrant seeds are those whose survival and viability gets affected because of dehydration and freezing.
| Know This :
Recalcitrant means the reduction in the seed moisture contents below certain levels and freezing drastically reduces the servival and thus present difficulty in storage. Here, subcellular damage of seeds occur accompanied by consequent loss of viability, when dried. |
(3) Gene therapy :
- Gene therapy is the treatment of genetic disorders by replacing, altering or supplementing a gene that is absent or abnormal and whose absence or abnormality is responsible for the disease.
- Genes can be delivered by three ways, viz. Ex vivo delivery, in vivo delivery and use of virosomes [Liposome + inactivated HIV) and bionic chips.
Delivery of genes into cells :
- Ex vivo delivery where cells are removed from the patients and then gene is introduced using viral or non-viral vectors e.g. Parkinsons disease, a neurological disorder.
- In vivo delivery where therapeutic genes are directly delivered in the cells at the target sites of the diseased tissue in the patient- like intravenous infusion genes to treat cancer are injected directly into tumor.
- Use of virosomes (Liposome + inactivated HIV), bionic chips are the other methods of gene delivery.
Gene therapy is being used in many ways.
For example, to:
- Replace missing or defective genes;
- Deliver genes that speed the destruction of cancer cells;
- Supply genes that cause cancer cells to revert back to normal cells;
- Deliver bacterial or viral genes as a form of vaccination;
- Deliver DNA to antigen expression and generation of immune response;
- Supply of gene for impairing viral replication;
- Provide genes that promote or impede the growth of new tissue; and
- Deliver genes that stimulate the healing of damaged tissue.
Forms of gene therapy : (i) Germ line gene therapy : (ii) Somatic cell gene therapy :
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) :
Genetically modified organisms are those whose genetic material has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering to create combinations of plant, animal, bacterial and virals genes that do not occur in nature or through traditional crossbreeding methods.
Transgenic Plants :
Transgenic plants are genetically engineered to carry various desirable traits.
Transgenic plants have been developed for :
- Insect pest resistance : e.g. Bt cotton and Transgenic tobacco.
- Biofortification : Improvement in quantity and quality of vitamin, proteins, oil and iron.
- Tolerance to abiotic stresse and herbicides.
- Resistance to various diseases.
- Improvement in post-harvest characteristics : e. g. Flavr savr tomatoes.
Examples of transgenic plants : Examples of insect resistant transgenic crops: BT crops : Transgenic tobacco : Examples of biofortified transgenic crops :
Transgenic plants can be used as bioreactors or factories :
- Biochemicals (starch, sugar, lipids and proteins) and biopharmaceuticals (hormones, antibodies, vaccines, drugs or enzymes) isolated from transgenic plants.
- Fine chemicals, perfumes and adhesive compounds.
- Industrial lubricants.
- Biodegradable plastic.
- ‘Renewable’ energy crops to replace fossil fuels.
- Superglue : A ‘superglue’ produced by tobacco plants with genes encoding for powerful adhesive proteins, Valuable as a biochemical glue for body repairs during surgery.
- Edible vaccines : Genetically altered plants can provide protection to infectious diseases. Potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, soybeans, alfalfa and cereals are the most common foods proposed for edible vaccine delivery.
Transgenic animals :
Transgenic animals are the animals in which there has been a deliberate modification of the genome
- Transgenic animals are produced using Recombinant DNA technology.
- Foreign DNA is introduced in transgenic animals using r-DNA technology.
- It is then transmitted through the germ line so that every cell if the animal contains the same modified genetic material.
- This involves cloning of desired gene and introduction of cloned gene into fertilized eggs, successful implantation of modified eggs into receptive female and obtaining progeny carrying cloned genes.
Application of Transgenic animals : Transgenic animals are used in various fields such as medical research, toxicology, molecular biology and in pharmaceutical industry.. Transgenic mice and cancer research : Transgenic farm animals : The main objectives for developing transgenic animals are to improve quality and quantity of milk, meat and wool, to increase egg production, to develop disease resistant animals, production of low-cost pharmaceuticals and biologicals. Transgenic farm animals include : Transgenic fish :
Bioethics :
Ethics deals with the matters related to socially acceptable moral duty, conduct and judgment. It helps to regulate the behaviour of community by certain set of standards.
- Bioethics helps to study moral vision, decision and policies of human behaviour in relation to biological phenomena or events.
It deals with wide range of reactions on new developments like :
- r-DNA technology, cloning, transgenics and gene therapy.
- In vitro fertilization, sperm bank, prenatal genetic selection and eugenics.
- Euthanasia, death, maintaining those who are in comatose state.
- Use of animals causes great sufferings to them.
- Violation of integration of species caused due to transgenosis.
- Transfer of human genes into animals and vice versa.
- Indiscriminate use of biotechnology poses risk to the environment, health and biodiversity.
Bioethical concerns related to GMO :
- The effects on non-target organisms, Insect resistance crops.
- Gene flow
- The loss of diversity as well as the issue on modification process disrupting the natural process of biological entities.
- Ethics in biotechnology also includes the general subject of what should and should not be done in using recombinant DNA techniques.
Effects of Biotechnology on the Environment Herbicide Use and Resistance : Effects on Untargeted Species : Effects of Biotechnology on Humane Health :
The vast advances in life sciences, multicultural and pluralistic modern societies create numerous bioethical problems. It require some stringent regulation.
In terms of GMOs, the Indian Government has set up the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC). This organization makes decisions regarding the validity of research involving GMOs and addresses the safety of GMOs introduced for public use.
Biopatent and Biopiracy
Patent is a special right granted to the inventor by the government.
A patent consists of three parts-grant(agreement with the inventor), Specification (subject matter of invention) and claims (scope of invention to be protected).
Biopatent :
- Biopatent is a biological patent awarded for strains of microorganisms, cell lines, genetically modified strains, DNA sequences, biotechnological processes, product processes, product and product applications.
- Biopatent allows the patent holder to exclude others from making, using, selling or importing protected invention for a limited period of time.
- Duration of biopatentis five years from the date of the grant or seven years from the date of filing the patent application, whichever is less.
- Awarding biopatents provides encouragement to innovations and promote development of scientific culture in society. It also emphasizes the role of biology in shaping human society.
- First biopatent was awarded for genetically engineered bacterium ‘Pseudomonas’ used for clearing oils spills.
- Patent jointly issued by Delta and Pineland company and US department of agriculture having title ‘control of plant gene expression, is based on a gene that produces a protein toxic to plant and thus prevents seed germination. This patent was not granted by Indian government. Such a patent is considered morally unacceptable and fundamentally unequitable. Such patents would pose a threat to global food security as financially powerful corporations would acquire monopoly over biotechnological process.
Biopiracy :
- Biopiracy is defined as ‘theft of various natural products and then selling them by getting patent without giving any benefits or compensation back to the host country.
- It is unauthorized misappropriation of any biological resource and traditional knowledge.
- It is bio-patenting of bio-resource or traditional knowledge of another nation without proper permission of the concerned nation or unlawful exploitation and use of bioresources without giving compensation.
Examples of Biopiracy : (i) Patenting of Neem (Azadirachta indica) : (ii) Patenting of Basmati : (iii) Haldi (Turmeric) Biopiracy :
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