Solutions-NCERT-Class-8-Social Science-Chapter-2-Reshaping India’s Political Map-CBSE

• Turkic-Afghan Invasions (11th–12th c.): Repeated invasions from Central Asia destabilized northwestern kingdoms. The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan (1192) at the hands of Muhammad Ghori led to the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate (1206).
• Delhi Sultanate (13th–15th c.): Expanded over large parts of India but remained contested. Regional powers like the Rajputs in Rajasthan and Ahoms in the northeast preserved autonomy.
• Southern Dynasties: The Vijayanagara Empire (1336) and the Bahmani Sultanate (1347) rose as strong southern powers, resisting Delhi’s dominance.
• Timur’s Invasion (1398): Ravaged Delhi and weakened the Sultanate, leading to further fragmentation.
• Mughal Emergence (16th c.): Babur’s victory at the First Battle of Panipat (1526) established the Mughal Empire, reuniting much of north India.
• Mughal Expansion & Limits (16th–17th c.): Under Akbar, the empire consolidated; under Aurangzeb, it reached maximum territorial extent. However, resistance from Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, and Ahoms prevented complete centralisation.

In short, foreign invasions introduced new ruling powers, which systematically expanded their control across vast swathes of India. Concurrently, the resilience and rise of various Indian kingdoms created a complex, multi-polar political landscape, where boundaries were fluid, fragmented, and constantly reshaped through continuous warfare and shifting alliances.

Indian Society and Economy in the Medieval Period :

Resilience of Society:

• Vijayanagara Empire, Rajputs (Battle of Haldighati, 1576), and Ahoms (Battle of Saraighat, 1671) preserved regional identities.
• Sikh Khalsa (1699) symbolised organised resistance against Mughal authority.
• Communities rebuilt temples and absorbed cultural influences, showing social continuity.

Economic Adaptability:

• Agriculture remained the backbone, supported by irrigation (e.g., Persian wheel).
• Trade thrived through ports like Calicut and Surat, aided by the hundi
• Temples acted as economic hubs—financing trade, building tanks, and supporting merchants.
• Artisans sustained industries (textiles, weapons, crafts), ensuring exports.
• Despite heavy taxation on peasants, decentralised networks kept the economy stable.

Life of the People in the Medieval Period

• Hardships: Heavy taxation (up to half the produce), frequent plunder, and famines burdened peasants.
• Economic & Social Trends: Trade and crafts prospered but benefited elites; villages maintained local governance and community bonds.
• Cultural Achievements: Flourishing art and architecture—Vijayanagara temples, Mughal monuments (e.g., Taj Mahal), and Sikh scriptures enriched heritage.
• Religious Strains: Jizya and temple destructions caused suffering.
• Resistance & Identity: Leaders like Rani Durgavati, Maharana Pratap, and Guru Tegh Bahadur symbolised courage and regional pride.

• Ala-ud-din Khilji called himself 'the second Alexander' on his coin to show his ambition and military strength.
• He wanted to compare his conquests across north and central India and his defence against his Mongol invasions to Alexander the Great's achievements in building a vast empire.

Maintaining an army in those days required a wide range of resources.

Maintaining Armies in the Medieval Period :

• Military Resources: Weapons (swords, bows, later gunpowder artillery) and war animals (horses, elephants, camels) were crucial.
• Logistics & Supplies: Regular provision of food for soldiers and animals was essential.
• Infrastructure: Roads and bridges enabled quick army movement.
• Finances: Funded through heavy taxation on peasants and plunder from campaigns; expenses included salaries, arms, and fortifications.
• Skilled Support: Artisans crafted weapons; labourers assisted in logistics, construction, and maintenance.

Medieval forts like Kumbhalgarh were built in strategic locations such as the Aravalli hills for several reasons.

Pros (Advantages):

• Natural Defence: Elevated terrain made forts hard to attack and easy to defend.
• Surveillance: Height gave wide visibility to monitor enemy movements.
• Limited Access: Narrow mountain passes restricted entry routes, slowing invaders.
• Resource Availability: Forests and local terrain provided wood, water sources, and stone for construction.

Cons (Disadvantages):

• Isolation: Difficult to get reinforcements quickly during long sieges.
• Supply Issues: Steep terrain made transport of food, weapons, and materials difficult.
• Construction Challenges: Building in hilly terrain required extra labour and resources.
• Vulnerability to Blockade: Enemies could cut off access routes, starving defenders inside.

• In above figure from the Vitthala temple shows warriors swords, spears, and shields, along with horses, and battle scenes.
• These elements show a society that valued warfare, where animals played an integral role in fighting and transport, reflecting a vibrant, conflict-driven culture.

The maps show clear differences over time.

Analysis of Political Maps (13th–17th Century):

• 2.3 : Delhi Sultanate (13th–15th c.) – Control was concentrated in northern India, while southern and eastern regions (Hoysalas, Eastern Gangas) remained independent.
• 2.12 : 14th–15th c. Regional Powers – Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, and Gajapati kingdom in the east reflected political fragmentation.
• 2.16 : Mughal Empire (16th–17th c.) – Expanded under Akbar and Aurangzeb to cover most of India, though resistance persisted from Sikhs, Rajputs, and others.

Overall Trend: India’s political map shifted from northern dominance under the Delhi Sultanate → to regional diversity (south/east powers) → to near-unification under the Mughals, shaped by invasions, resistance, and new dynasties.

• Aurangzeb’s personal letters towards the end of his life reveal deep regret over his actions—imprisoning his father Shah Jahan, killing his brothers to gain the throne, and causing immense suffering through wars, temple destructions, and harsh policies.
• In his final years, he admitted he had “not done well for the country or the people.”
• His writings also show his loneliness and despair, highlighting how his oppressive rule and religious intolerance left a negative impact on society and weakened the Mughal Empire.

The Paik System (Ahom Kingdom):

• The paik system required every able-bodied man to give labour or military service in return for land rights.
• This provided the Ahom rulers with a stable workforce and a strong defence force without the expense of a permanent army.
• It supported infrastructure works like roads and canals and proved crucial in victories such as the Battle of Saraighat (1671).
• However, compulsory service disrupted daily life and placed burdens on families. Overall, it strengthened both the economy and military of the Ahom kingdom.

Geography:

• Assam was marked by dense forests, hills, and the wide Brahmaputra river.
• These natural features acted as barriers and provided hiding spots for troops.

Strategy:

• The Ahoms used guerrilla warfare and ambushes, striking swiftly from forests and riverbanks.
• River routes were used both for transport and as defensive lines against larger invading armies.

Outcome (Battle of Saraighat, 1671):

• Under Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms defeated a much larger Mughal force.
• Mughal armies found it hard to navigate terrain, launch coordinated attacks, or maintain supply lines.
• Assam’s independence was preserved.

The word 'image' is used because words like 'idol' and 'icon' can sound negative in religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which are against idol worship. In Indian traditions, neutral words like mūrti or pratimā are used for statues in worship. So, using 'image' is a respectful and neutral choice that fits different cultural and religious views.

• Bringing together as many as 75 chieftains in the 14th century would have a difficult task due to regional rivalries, poor communication, and different political interests.
• Munsuri Nayakas managed to do so, shows strong leadership, common goals against the Delhi Sultanate, and the ability to form strategic alliances.

The use of the term pati in royal titles reflected different aspects of kingship and

power.

• Narapati, used by the Vijayanagara rulers, meant "lord of men" and emphasized their rule over people.
• The Bahmani Sultanate rulers were called Ashwapati, or "lord of horses," which highlighted the strength of their cavalry.
• The Maratha rulers used the title Chhatrapati, meaning "supreme sovereign," to signify their paramount authority.

Babur’s Impressions of India :

• Homesickness – Babur missed the cooler climate and familiar culture of Central Asia.
• Rich Resources – He was impressed by India’s abundance of gold, silver, and wealth.
• Thriving Economy – He noticed busy markets and skilled craftspeople.
• Criticism – He disliked aspects such as unfamiliar food and lifestyle.
• Natural Beauty – Babur admired India’s fertile land and scenic beauty.

Overall View – His views reflects both personal discomfort and recognition of India’s prosperity.

Akbar’s Strategies of Governance

• Understanding Diversity – Realised ruling India needed more than military power.
• Diplomacy – Used negotiations and alliances to win support.
• Marriage Alliances – Allied with Rajputs and other groups through matrimonial ties.
• Sulh-i-kul (Religious Tolerance) – Promoted harmony among different faiths.
• Contrast with Delhi Sultans – Earlier rulers relied mainly on force, causing instability.

Result – Akbar’s policies ensured greater loyalty, unity, and stability in the Mughal Empire.

Delhi Sultans vs. Mughal Emperors – Average Reign

• Delhi Sultans – Average reign of 9 years, showing instability and violent successions.
• Mughal Emperors (till Aurangzeb) – Average reign of 27 years, reflecting stronger administration, alliances, and stability.
• Later Mughals included – Average falls to 16 years, indicating weakening empire and rising instability.
• Comparison – Longer Mughal reigns show better governance than Delhi Sultans, but decline after Aurangzeb marks loss of central control.

• Guru Tegh Bahadur endured torture to uphold religious freedom and protect Kashmiri Pandits, believing his martyrdom would inspire resistance against Mughal oppression.

• The Sikh Gurus and the Khalsa embodied values of courage, justice, equality, and selfless service.
• They stood for defending religious freedom, fighting oppression, and protecting the weak, while promoting unity and moral strength among their followers.

These values are important today because they teach us to treat everyone fairly, respect differences, and help others, which helps build a better and peaceful world.

Comparison of Political Strategies – Delhi Sultanate vs. Mughals

Similarities :

• Military Expansion – Both relied on wars, conquests, and raids to expand territories.
• Revenue System – Both collected land revenue and special taxes (e.g., jizya) to fund armies.
• Central Authority – Both emphasised the ruler as the supreme authority supported by nobles/officials.

Differences :

• Delhi Sultanate :
  1. Depended heavily on force and military strength.
  2. Used the iqta system (land grants to nobles for service).
  3. Faced instability due to frequent succession struggles → short reigns (avg. 9 years).
  4. Limited attempts at diplomacy or cultural integration.
• Mughals (esp. Akbar) :
  1. Balanced military with diplomacy and alliances (e.g., Rajput marriages).
  2. Introduced the mansabdari system for efficient administration and army control.
  3. Promoted sulh-i-kul (religious tolerance) to integrate diverse groups.
  4. Achieved longer reigns (avg. 27 years till Aurangzeb) → more stability.

Conclusion : Both relied on military and taxes, but Delhi Sultanate = force-based, unstable, while Mughals = inclusive, diplomatic, and stable.

Geographical, military, and social factors contributed to Kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire and the Ahom Kingdom :

Vijayanagara Empire :

• Geographical Advantage – Hampi’s rocky, hilly terrain provided natural defence.
• Military Strength – Built a strong, well-equipped army under rulers like Krishnadevaraya.
• Cultural Unity – Promoted religion, built temples, and supported literature to unify people.

Ahom Kingdom (Assam):

• Geographical Advantage – Dense forests, rivers, and hills made invasions difficult.
  Military Tactics – Used guerrilla warfare and local terrain to defeat larger forces (e.g., Battle of Saraighat, 1671).
  Paik System – Every able-bodied man contributed labour or military service, ensuring a flexible army.

Common Strengths :

• Local Support & Social Unity – Strong backing from their people gave both kingdoms resilience.

Result – Geography + military strategy + social cohesion helped them resist conquest longer than many other kingdoms.

Dear Friend,

I hope you are well. I write to you from the splendid city of Vijayanagara, where I serve in the court of our great emperor, Krishnadevaraya. Life here is full of wonder, and I feel compelled to share with you the marvels I am witnessing.

• The empire is vast and well-administered. The emperor is both a warrior and a statesman. He leads successful campaigns against rivals like the Bahmanis and the Gajapatis of Odisha, which keeps our frontiers secure. He rewards loyal nobles generously, ensuring their support and stability in governance.
• The king is not only a brave leader but also a supporter of arts and learning. He encourages poets and scholars, and he even wrote a famous poem himself.
• Our city is full of beautiful temples, palaces, gardens, and busy markets. It is said to be as large and lovely as Rome. Many traders come from different places to buy and
• sell goods here.
• Life in the city is full of energy and wealth. But after Krishnadevaraya passed away in 1529, things have become difficult.
• In 1565, a group of enemies fought against us and defeated our army in the Battle of Talikota. They destroyed many parts of our city, including temples and homes, and this has made life hard for many people.
• Now the empire is breaking into smaller parts, ruled by local leaders called Nayakas. Still, the memory of Krishnadevaraya's rule and the glory of Vijayanagara remain strong in our hearts.

I feel fortunate to witness such greatness in my lifetime. May you one day visit and see these wonders with your own eyes.

Yours sincerely,

(Scholar's name)

Akbar’s Transformation as a Ruler

Early Phase – Conqueror :

• Became emperor at 13, focused on conquest and military expansion.
• Showed brutality, e.g., siege of Chittor with mass killings and harsh treatment of survivors.
• Effect: Rule based on fear and force.

Change in Approach :

• Cause: Interactions with people of different faiths, marriage alliances with Rajputs, and debates with scholars.
• Effect: Shifted from intolerance to inclusion.

Policies of Tolerance :

• Abolished jizya tax on non-Muslims.
• Promoted sulh-i-kul (“peace with all”) → encouraged harmony among diverse groups.
• Valued respect and cooperation over fear.

Personal Reflections :

• Court historian Abul Fazl recorded Akbar’s belief that forced conversions were wrong and temporary.
• Effect: Strengthened his image as a just and farsighted ruler.

Overall Outcome : Akbar evolved from a ruthless conqueror into a wise, benevolent emperor. His inclusive policies ensured stability, unity, and loyalty in the Mughal Empire.

If the Vijayanagara Empire had won the Battle of Talikota in 1565, the history of South India could have been very different.

• Political Stability – Empire would have remained united instead of fragmenting into Nayaka states.
• Expansion of Power – Could have extended influence further in the Deccan and possibly challenged northern powers like the Mughals.
• Defence Against Sultanates – A strong Vijayanagara could have resisted invasions from Deccan Sultanates more effectively.
• Cultural Growth – Golden age under Krishnadevaraya might have continued with greater achievements in art, literature, and temple architecture.
• Religious & Social Unity – Continued patronage of temples, scholars, and religious centres would have strengthened cultural integration.
• Urban & Economic Development – Cities like Hampi might have grown into even larger centres of trade, pilgrimage, and artistic activity.
• Long-term Impact – South India could have emerged as a leading political and cultural power for centuries.

Equality in Early Sikhism and Its Relevance Today :

Teachings of Sikhism :

• Guru Nanak’s message – Oneness of God (Ik Onkar) and equal worth of all human beings.
• Challenge to divisions – Opposed caste system, discrimination, and religious intolerance.
• Later Gurus’ actions – Example: Guru Tegh Bahadur sacrificed his life to defend the right of Kashmiri Pandits to practise their faith.

Core Values :

• Equality and dignity – Respect for all, regardless of caste, religion, or background.
• Seva (service) – Helping others selflessly.
• Justice – Standing against oppression and protecting the weak.

Relevance Today :

• Promotes mutual respect and peaceful coexistence in diverse societies.
• Guides fairness in schools, workplaces, and communities.
• Inspires us to act with compassion, integrity, and shared humanity.

Conclusion : Sikh values of equality, seva, and justice remain timeless principles for building inclusive and harmonious societies.

Greetings from the bustling port of Calicut. Every day here feels like a festival of trade, with sights and sounds from many lands.

The Scene at the Port:

• The harbour is crowded with ships — large Arab dhows with their sails billowing, sleek Chinese junks heavy with silks and porcelain, and vessels from distant Portugal carrying silver and horses.
• Smaller Indian boats bring rice, coconuts, and spices from nearby villages. The air is filled with the aroma of pepper, cardamom, and cloves.

Goods and Trade:

• We exchange pepper, spices, textiles, ivory, and precious stones for horses, copper, gold, and fine cloth from abroad.
• Traders from Arabia, Persia, China, and Europe haggle with local merchants like me.
• The warehouses overflow with bales of cotton cloth, jars of ghee, and sacks of rice, all waiting to be shipped.

People and Culture:

• Here, I see people of every kind — Arab merchants in flowing robes, Chinese sailors with strange hats, Europeans with their cross symbols, and local Malayali fishermen unloading their catch. Different languages echo across the market, yet trade binds us all together.

Movement of Ships:

• Every tide brings new arrivals and departures. Ships sail out heavy with spices, while new ones arrive laden with exotic goods.
• The port never rests, day or night, and fortunes are made and lost with the turn of the winds.

Life here shows me that the sea is not a barrier but a bridge, bringing together people, goods, and ideas from across the world.