Notes-NCERT-Class-8-Social Science-Chapter-2-Reshaping India’s Political Map-CBSE

Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate :

• Eastern Gangas (Odisha, Bengal, Andhra Pradesh): King Narasimhadeva I defeated Sultanate invasions in the mid-13th century and built the Konark Sun Temple to celebrate his victories.
• Musunuri Nayakas (Telugu chieftains): Around 1330–1336, they united more than 75 local leaders, defeated the Sultanate’s army, and expelled Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s forces from Warangal.
• Hoysalas (Karnataka): They resisted attacks but weakened due to internal problems and later became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. Their famous temples at Belur and Halebidu show their cultural achievements.
• Regional Kingdoms: The Bahmani Sultanate, and states in Gujarat and Bengal, broke away in the mid-14th century, fighting against Delhi and further weakening it.
• Rana Kumbha of Mewar (15th century): He strongly resisted the Sultanate and other sultanates. He built the massive Kumbhalgarh Fort in Rajasthan, with a 36 km wall (one of the longest in the world).

The Vijayanagara Empire :

• Founded in the 14th century by Harihara and Bukka, who were once governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq but later rejected Delhi’s rule.
• It grew into a powerful southern kingdom.
• In the north, the Bahmani Sultanate was formed, which later broke into five smaller states called the Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar.
• The Vijayanagara rulers often fought wars against Bijapur, Golconda, and the Gajapati rulers of Odisha.

Krishnadevaraya :

• In the 16th century, Krishnadevaraya made Vijayanagara the strongest it had ever been.
• He expanded the empire, strengthened its army, and supported art and literature.
• He encouraged many languages and himself wrote a famous Telugu poem, Āmuktamālyada, about good leadership.
• After his death in 1529, the empire slowly weakened.
• In 1565, the Deccan Sultanates united and defeated Vijayanagara at the Battle of Talikota.
• The capital city was destroyed, thousands were killed, and the empire broke into smaller regions ruled by local chiefs called Nayakas.

Resistance To The Mughals :

Jat peasants (17th century): Rose up against oppressive Mughal officers but were eventually suppressed.

Tribal groups (Bhil, Gond, Santhal): Resisted Mughal control; some stayed independent in remote/forested areas.

Rani Durgavati (Garha kingdom, Gond queen):

• Ruled bravely and strengthened her kingdom.
• Had an army of 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants.
• Fought against Akbar’s army; when wounded, chose to end her life rather than be captured.

Surge of the Rajputs :

• Rana Sanga and later Maharana Pratap resisted Mughal rule.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576): Maharana Pratap, aided by Bhil warriors, fought bravely against Akbar’s forces but was defeated.
• After the battle, he used guerrilla warfare to continue resistance.
• Mewar and Marwar, under leaders like Durga Das Rathore, kept defying the Mughals.
• Mughal authority in Rajasthan remained limited.

The Ahoms :

• The Ahom kingdom in Assam resisted Mughal expansion.
• They used the paik system: every healthy man had to serve the state (as soldier or worker) in return for land. This kept the kingdom strong without a permanent army.
• Battle of Saraighat (1671): General Lachit Borphukan led about 10,000 Ahom soldiers against a Mughal force of 30,000.
• By using guerrilla tactics and knowledge of the Brahmaputra river terrain, the Ahoms defeated the Mughals and kept their independence.

The Rise of the Sikhs :

• Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak.
• After Guru Arjan was executed by Jahangir, Guru Hargobind gave the Sikhs a martial (military) character.
• In 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed for defending religious freedom.
• His son, Guru Gobind Singh, created the Khalsa (1699) – a community of warrior Sikhs who fought the Mughals.
• Later, Maharaja Ranjit Singh united Sikh groups into a strong Sikh Empire, which resisted both the declining Mughals and later the British in the 19th century.

Detailed Timeline :

11th Century CE :

• Early 11th century: Invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush
• Invaders (Turks & Afghans) enter India for wealth, land, and religious expansion.
• These invasions reshape India’s political map.

12th Century CE :

• 1192: Prithviraj Chauhan defeated → Delhi Sultanate established.
• 1206: Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate (Mamluk dynasty).

13th Century CE :

• Qutb-ud-din Aibak builds Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi (materials from 27 temples).
• Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga ruler) defeats Delhi forces, builds Konark Sun Temple.
• Ahoms migrate from Myanmar → establish Ahom kingdom in Assam.

14th Century CE :

• Ala-ud-din Khilji expands empire, repels Mongols.
• Malik Kafur campaigns into the Deccan.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq expands empire → fails with capital shift to Daulatabad & token currency.
• 1330–1336: Musunuri Nayakas defeat Delhi forces, expel Tughlaq army from Warangal.
• 1336: Harihara & Bukka found Vijayanagara Empire.
• 1347: Establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate.
• 1398: Timur invades Delhi, causing devastation.

15th Century CE :

• Lodi dynasty rules (last dynasty of Delhi Sultanate).
• Rana Kumbha (Mewar) resists Sultanate; builds Kumbhalgarh Fort.
• Guru Nanak founds Sikhism.
• 1498: Portuguese arrive in India (Vasco da Gama).

16th Century CE :

• Early 1500s: Rana Sanga unites Rajputs, defeated by Babur.
• 1526: Babur wins First Battle of Panipat → begins Mughal Empire.
• 1529: Death of Krishnadevaraya (Vijayanagara peak).
• 1530: Babur dies → Humayun becomes emperor.
• 1540s: Sher Shah Suri establishes Sur Empire → reforms (roads, currency, land revenue).
• 1556: Second Battle of Panipat → Himu defeated, Akbar becomes emperor.
• 1564: Rani Durgavati dies fighting Akbar’s forces.
• 1565: Battle of Talikota → Vijayanagara Empire destroyed.
• 1576: Battle of Haldighati → Maharana Pratap resists Mughals.
• 1605: Death of Akbar.

17th Century CE :

• Jahangir expands Mughal Empire, patron of art.
• Guru Arjan executed (1606).
• Guru Hargobind militarises Sikhism.
• Shah Jahan → golden age of Mughal architecture (Taj Mahal, Red Forts).
• 1658: Aurangzeb seizes throne, imprisons Shah Jahan.
• 1669: Aurangzeb orders temple destructions.
• 1671: Battle of Saraighat → Ahoms under Lachit Borphukan defeat Mughals.
• 1675: Guru Tegh Bahadur
• 1699: Guru Gobind Singh creates the Khalsa.

18th Century CE :

• 1707: Death of Aurangzeb → Mughal decline accelerates.
• 1754: Marathas control Delhi.

19th Century CE :

• 1799: Maharaja Ranjit Singh establishes the Sikh Empire.
• Early 1800s: Sikh Empire resists Mughals & British expansion.

Glossary of Key Terms :

• Medieval Period: For the purpose of this text, refers to the period in Indian history from the 11th to the 17th centuries CE, distinct from its European application.
• Turkic: Refers to peoples, languages, and cultures historically associated with a vast region stretching across Central Asia to Turkey and Siberia. Many invaders of India during this period were Turkic.
• Sultanate: A territory ruled by a 'Sultan,' a title adopted by some Muslim rulers.
• Delhi Sultanate: A series of five successive Turkic-Afghan dynasties that ruled over parts of northern India from 1206 to 1526 CE, with Delhi as their capital.
• Mamluks (Slave Dynasty): The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, established by Turkic slave-generals.
• Khiljis (Khaljis), Tughlaqs, Sayyids, Lodis (Lodhis): Successive dynasties that ruled under the Delhi Sultanate.
• Iconoclasm: The rejection or destruction of icons or religious images, often considered idolatrous. This was a motivation for some invasions and destruction of temples.
• Jizya: A discriminatory tax imposed on non-Muslim subjects by some Muslim rulers, intended to grant protection and exemption from military service. It often led to economic burden and was a social incentive for conversion.
• Infidel: Literally, someone who does not share the faith of a given religion. In the context of medieval Islam in India, it referred to Hindus, Buddhists, or Jains.
• Timur: A brutal Turkic-Mongol conqueror from Central Asia who invaded northwest India and devastated Delhi in 1398.
• Vijayanagara Empire: A powerful independent kingdom established in southern India in the 14th century by Harihara and Bukka, rejecting Delhi's authority. Known for its cultural renaissance and military strength.
• Bahmani Sultanate: A major rival to the Vijayanagara Empire, which rose in the mid-14th century and controlled much of the Deccan before fragmenting into five independent Deccan Sultanates.
• Deccan Sultanates: Five independent states (Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar) that emerged from the fragmentation of the Bahmani Sultanate.
• Krishnadevaraya: The celebrated ruler under whom the Vijayanagara Empire reached its peak in the 16th century, known for military dominance and cultural patronage.
• Āmuktamālyada: An epic poem in Telugu composed by Krishnadevaraya, including sections on Rājanīti (royal policy).
• Rājanīti: A concept of 'royal policy' or good governance, as expounded by Krishnadevaraya.
• Battle of Talikota (1565): A decisive battle where a coalition of Deccan Sultanates defeated the Vijayanagara forces, leading to the sacking of the city and the empire's decline.
• Mughal Empire: An empire established by Babur in 1526, replacing the Delhi Sultanate, and significantly expanding across the Indian subcontinent.
• Babur: The founder of the Mughal Empire, a Turkic-Mongol ruler and military strategist who defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi, marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire.
• Gunpowder, Field Artillery, Matchlock Guns: New military technologies introduced in warfare in India by Babur.
• Baburnama: Babur's candid autobiography, providing historical insights into his life and impressions of India.
• Sher Shah Suri: A powerful Afghan leader who established the short-lived Sur Empire, introducing lasting reforms in North India before Humayun reconquered the lost territories.
• Akbar: The third Mughal emperor, known for his vast territorial expansion, initial brutality, and later embrace of political strategies, religious tolerance (sulh-i-kul), and cultural patronage.
• Jauhar: A historical practice among Rajput women of self-immolation to avoid capture, enslavement, or dishonor during invasions.
• Sulh-i-kul: Literally "peace with all," a doctrine promoted by Akbar advocating tolerance of all faiths through interfaith dialogues and inclusive policies.
• Mansabdari System: An administrative and military system instituted by Akbar, where officers (mansabdars) were assigned a rank (mansab) and required to maintain a specific number of troops and animals for the state. They were often paid through land assignments (jagirs).
• Jagir/Jagirdar: A land assignment given to a mansabdar as payment, making the mansabdar also a jagirdar.
• Todar Mal: Akbar's finance minister, who introduced an efficient revenue system based on detailed surveys of crop yields and land.
• Aurangzeb: The sixth Mughal emperor, known for the greatest expansion of the Mughal Empire, his austere religious life, and the reimposition of the jizya and pilgrimage taxes, and widespread destruction of non-Muslim religious sites.
• Garha Kingdom: One of the Gond kingdoms in central India, ruled by Rani Durgavati, who valiantly resisted Akbar's forces.
• Rani Durgavati: A valiant queen of the Garha kingdom, remembered for her wise rule and fierce resistance against Mughal invasion.
• Rajputs: Martial clans in Rajasthan who often battled invading forces and rebuilt their kingdoms, known for their heroic resistance.
• Maharana Pratap: Ruler of Mewar who refused Mughal suzerainty and engaged in guerrilla warfare against Akbar from the Aravalli hills.
• Guerrilla warfare: A style of fighting where small groups with knowledge of the terrain carry out surprise attacks and ambushes against larger armies.
• Ahoms: An ethnic group who migrated to the Brahmaputra Valley in the 13th century, forming a kingdom that fiercely resisted both the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals.
• Paik System: A unique Ahom administrative system where every able-bodied man provided service (labor or military) to the state in exchange for land rights, allowing for public infrastructure and a strong defense force.
• Battle of Saraighat (1671): A significant victory for the Ahoms, led by Lachit Borphukan, against a larger Mughal force on the Brahmaputra River, preserving Ahom independence.
• Sikhs: Followers of Guru Nanak in 15th century Punjab, who later formed a martial brotherhood (Khalsa) to defend their faith against Mughal persecution.
• Guru Nanak: The founder of Sikhism, who spread a message of equality, compassion, and the oneness of God.
• Guru Arjan: The fifth Sikh Guru, compiled the Guru Granth Sahib, and was tortured to death by Emperor Jahangir.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur: The ninth Sikh Guru, publicly beheaded by Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam and standing up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits.
• Guru Gobind Singh: The tenth and last Sikh Guru, who established the Khalsa, a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality, and defense of the faith.
• Khalsa: A martial brotherhood established by Guru Gobind Singh, committed to justice, equality, and defense of the Sikh faith.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Unified Sikh confederacies in Punjab at the turn of the 19th century, establishing a strong, centralized Sikh Empire.
• Iqta System: An administrative instrument of the Delhi Sultanate where territories (iqtas) were assigned to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes for maintaining the army and contributing to the Sultan's treasury.
• Diwan: The head of finances in the Mughal administration.
• Mir Bakhshi: The official in charge of military matters in the Mughal administration.
• Khan-i-Saman: Responsible for public works, trade, industry, agriculture, and the royal household in the Mughal administration.
• Sadr: Responsible for justice, religious, and educational matters in the Mughal administration.
• Subah: One of the twelve provinces (subahs) into which the Mughal Empire was divided.
• Śhreṇis (Guilds): Community-based economic organizations that formed part of India's decentralized economic systems.
• Jātis (Professionally Defined Communities): Social groups often associated with specific professions, contributing to decentralized economic and social systems.
• Hundi: A written instruction to make payment to an individual, enabling financial transactions across political boundaries without physical currency, a precursor to modern banking.
• Dāna: Donations of land and wealth, often made by ruling classes to temple deities, held in trust by temple managers.
• Dharmaśhālās and Chhatrams: Pilgrim accommodations developed by temple managers.